The analysis of cognitive presence in the CoI framework is guided by the Practical Inquiry Model first presented in Garrison et al. (1999). Based upon Dewey's (1933) conception of practical inquiry, the model describes critical thinking as "a holistic multi-phased process associated with a triggering event" (Garrison et al., 1999, p. 98):

The model presented here assumes an iterative and reciprocal relationship between the personal and shared worlds. That is, there is a synergy between reflection and communicative action. Critical thinking is the integration of deliberation and action. This reflects the dynamic relationship between personal meaning and shared understanding (i.e., knowledge). Purposeful thinking and acting are essential to the educational process. (Garrison et al., 1999, p. 98)

Practical Inquiry Model. Garrison, D. Randy, Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (1999). Critical Inquiry in a Text-Based Environment: Computer Conferencing in Higher Education. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2-3), 87-105. https://www.doi.org/10.1016/S1096-7516(00)00016-6

... The reflective phases of practical inquiry or critical thinking presented here are grounded in the pre- and post-reflective phases of the world of practice. The two axes that structure the model are action-deliberation and perception-conception. The first axis is reflection on practice. The second axis is the assimilation of information and the construction of meaning. Together, they constitute the shared and personal worlds. The quadrants reflect the logical or idealized sequence of practical inquiry (i.e., critical thinking) and correspond to the proposed categories of cognitive presence indicators.

The first category of cognitive presence represented in the model (lower left quadrant of [the figure above]) is a state of dissonance or feeling of unease resulting from an experience. This category is described as that of a triggering event or communication. The second category (upper left quadrant of [the figure above]) is that of exploration in a search for information, knowledge and alternatives that might help to make sense of the situation or problem. This category is described as that of searching for clarification and attempting to orient one's attention. The third category is integrating the information and knowledge into a coherent idea or concept. The description here is looking for insights and gaining some understanding of the acquired information and knowledge. The fourth category is the resolution of the issue or problem. This category is described as an application of an idea or hypothesis. The success of the application and whether the idea is confirmed will determine whether the process of inquiry continues. (Garrison et al., 1999, pp. 98-99).

The Practical Inquiry Model has recently been adapted by Nasr et al. (2025) to support critical thinking in learning contexts incorporating generative AI. Recent studies, including Nasr et al. (2025), consider the extent to which generative AI tools such as ChatGPT can support or improve cognitive presence, with or without human guidance. Nasr et al.'s adapted model is shown below.

Adapting the Practical Inquiry framework to support critical thinking in a GenAI context. Nasr, N. R., Tu, C-H., Werner, J., Bauer, T., Yen, C-J., & Sujo-Montes, L. (2025). Exploring the Impact of Generative AI ChatGPT on Critical Thinking in Higher Education: Passive AI-Directed Use or Human–AI Supported Collaboration? Education Sciences, 15(9), 1198. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15091198 [CC-BY]